A fire whirl or fire devil (sometimes referred to as a fire tornado) is a whirlwind induced by a fire and often (at least partially) composed of flame or ash. In short, the new Tokyo would be the model high modernist city that could serve as a blueprint for all future urban renewal projects in Japan. Type 1: Stable and centered over burning area. Roving bands of Japanese prowled the ruins of Yokohama and Tokyo, setting up makeshift roadblocks and massacring Koreans across the earthquake zone. Amidst widespread panic, chaos, and death, rumors spread throughout the disaster stricken areas. Type 2: Stable or transient, downwind of burning area. [55], Maurice Tourneur's 1924 silent film Torment has an earthquake in Yokohama in its plot, and uses footage of the Kant earthquake in the film.[56]. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Your email address will not be published. More than this, however, many rural MPs contested Gots vision of a modern, metropolitan Japan revolving around the imperial capital; numerous parliamentarians argued that the countryside, not Tokyo, was the true heart of Japan, or as a number declared, the foundation of the nation. More than a few astute parliamentarians used the post-disaster reconstruction debates opportunistically to highlight what they saw as the plight of rural Japan. Moreover, army personnel likewise took the lead in constructing relief camps which, by October, housed more than 105,000 refugees. [35] Moreover, anyone mistakenly identified as Korean, such as Chinese, Ryukyuans, and Japanese speakers of some regional dialects, suffered the same fate. Capt. While dreams of constructing a modern, new metropolis may have been shattered by the contentious political and financial disputes, numerous government officials and social commentators thereafter directed their attention toward reconstructing Japans subjects and citizens. The total death toll from the disaster is estimated at about 142,800. Estimates suggest that vigilantes and voluntary self-defense groups killed around 6,000 Koreans, as well as a small number of Japanese and Chinese mistaken for Koreans, in the days following the disaster.10 While news of the massacres was initially tightly controlled, within months select newspapers and journals published stinging critiques of the murderous events. [54] The park houses a Buddhist-style memorial hall/museum, a memorial bell donated by Taiwanese Buddhists, a memorial to the victims of World War II Tokyo air raids, and a memorial to the Korean victims of the vigilante killings. [18], During the 1871 Peshtigo fire, the community of Williamsonville, Wisconsin, was burned by a fire whirl; the area where Williamsonville once stood is now Tornado Memorial County Park. The reconstruction effort that many planners and opportunistic politicians believed would unite the nation and serve as a blueprint for national reconstruction proved to be a political, ideological, and legal morass. After a brief time there, she's sent back to the already destroyed Tokyo, and she, alongside her soon-to-be love interest Seiji Horie and two young boys named Hideo and Kenichi, is taken in by a friend of the late Takao, Dr. Oikawa. ThoughtCo, Aug. 28, 2020, thoughtco.com/the-great-kanto-earthquake-195143. It was the deadliest earthquake in Japanese history. Article history. Traditional figures offered words of solace: Crown Prince Hirohito 88 years ago; his son, Emperor Akihito, in 2011. Every year on this date, schools across Japan take a moment of silence at the precise time the earthquake hit in memory of the lives lost. In the 2013 animated film by director Hayao Miyazaki, The Wind Rises, the protagonist Jiro Horikoshi is traveling to Tokyo by train to study engineering. The 1923 earthquake led to record-high morbidity due to unsanitary conditions following the earthquake, and it prompted the establishment of antityphoid measures and the building of urban infrastructure. The earthquake, he has written, fostered a culture of catastrophe defined by political and ideological opportunism, contestation and resilience, as well as a culture of reconstruction in which elites sought to not only rebuild Tokyo, but also reconstruct the Japanese nation and its people.. Notify me of follow-up comments by email. Many other rumors dealt with Japans largest ethnic minority group, Koreans. Fires started immediately after the earthquake. ", This page was last edited on 26 February 2023, at 00:05. As stoves were overturned and gas mains ruptured, blazes quickly erupted, ravaging the citieswooden houses and anything else in their paths. 2023 Smithsonian Magazine In 1703 and 1855 Ed, as Tokyo was formerly called, experienced extensive destruction from earthquakes and fires as a result of the Philippine Sea plate subducting directly beneath Tokyo Bay.5 Japan is, as many commentators have suggested, an earthquake nation.6. A 60- by 60-mile segment of the Philippine oceanic plate ruptured and thrust itself against the Eurasian continental plate, releasing a massive burst of tectonic energy. A P&O liner, Dongola, was also in the harbor at the moment of disaster and rescued 505 people, taking them to Kobe.[30]. By this fire-tornado, about 40 thousand people have been burned to death in a moment. [11] The 7.9 magnitude earthquake, centered just over forty miles south-southwest of Japan's capital, released energy equivalent to the detonation of nearly 400 Hiroshima-size atomic bombs. In the animated series, Tokyo Magnitude 8.0, the Sagami Trough ruptures in a magnitude-8.0 earthquake, killing over 200,000 in Tokyo, causing floods and fires, and putting the main character at risk. Enclosed find a few snaps taken on the top of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo which is the only hotel in the earthquake district that survived. J.H. Then came fires, roaring through the wooden houses of Yokohama and Tokyo, the capital, burning everythingand everyonein their path. The earthquake also exposed the darker side of humanity. According to some estimates, the death toll was as high as 6,000. Not surprisingly, Fukasaku had long championed the idea that Japan of the post WWI era was in a state of moral decline. The cities of Tokyo and Yokohama, and surrounding towns and villages, have been largely if not completely destroyed by earthquake, fire and flood, with a resultant appalling loss of life and destitution and distress, requiring measures of urgent relief. The American Red Cross, of which Coolidge was the titular head, initiated a national relief drive, raising $12 million for victims. Media in category "1923 Great Kant earthquake". On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Fire and tremors together claimed 90% of the homes in Yokohama and left 60% of Tokyo's people homeless. Hannah Gould, 'Exhibiting disaster' 47 A deep fissure opened by the earthquake, Nij Bridge, . A false rumor was spread that Koreans were taking advantage of the disaster, committing arson and robbery, and were in possession of bombs. [50] Wright's structure withstood the anticipated earthquake stresses, and the hotel remained in use until 1968. Thanks to that terrible tragedy, I'm here. "The Changing Character of Disaster Victimhood: Evidence from Japan's 'Great Earthquakes'. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. A fire whirl consists of a burning core and a rotating pocket of air. For the city was gone., The tragedy prompted countless acts of heroism. Ninety-three years ago today, the Great KantoEarthquake rocked Japan, destroyingTokyo and Yokohama and wreakingwidespread damage. [16] A broader classification of fire whirls suggested by Forman A. Williams includes five different categories:[17], The meteorological community views some fire-induced phenomena as atmospheric phenomena. The Great Kanto Earthquake triggered another horrifying result. The Taisho Emperor and Empress Teimei were on holiday in the mountains, and so escaped the disaster. 1923 earthquake and tsunami centered in southeast Honshu, Japan. Starting in Yokohama, rumors circulated suggesting that bands of lawless Koreans had set fires, looted shelters, shops, and vacant homes, and poisoned wells throughout the Kant region. Some discreet memorials are located in Yokoamicho Park in Sumida Ward, at the site of the open space in which an estimated 38,000 people were killed by a single fire whirl. Shortly before noon on September 1, 1923, along a fault extending roughly northwest by Southeast in Sagami Bay, parts of these plates slipped past each other. Only 300 of the people gathered there survived. Tawara Magoichi called the crimes deplorable, suggesting that the disaster exposed a major defect in the national spirit of Japan.11. The unfinished battlecruiser Amagi was in drydock being converted into an aircraft carrier in Yokosuka in compliance with the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. In the ancient capital of Kamakura, a twenty-foot wave killed some three hundred people and shifted the citys Great Buddhaweighing in at 121 tonsbymore than a foot. Lying at the intersection of three tectonic platesThe Pacific Plate, the Eurasian Plate, and the Philippines Sea Plateroughly eleven percent of the worlds seismic energy is released annually under the Japanese archipelago. Attracting entrepreneurs, fugitives, traders, spies and drifters from every corner of the world, the port rose like a mirage in the desert, wrote one Japanese novelist. The 7.9 magnitude earthquake, centered just over forty miles south-southwest of Japans capital, released energy equivalent to the detonation of nearly 400 Hiroshima-size atomic bombs. [22], Numerous large fire whirls (some tornadic) that developed after lightning struck an oil storage facility near San Luis Obispo, California, on 7 April 1926, produced significant structural damage well away from the fire, killing two. The offshore earthquake triggered a tsunami in the bay, which struck the island of Oshima at a height of 39 feet and hit the Izu and Boso Peninsulas with 20-foot waves. On September 2, 1923, he assumed the position of Home Minister and soon thereafter became President of the Reconstruction Institute. The Great Kant earthquake [11][12] struck the Kant Plain on the main Japanese island of Honsh at 11:58:44 JST on Saturday, September 1, 1923. A tsunami with waves up to 10m (33ft) high struck the coast of Sagami Bay, Bs Peninsula, Izu Islands, and the east coast of Izu Peninsula within minutes. ALL TRAFFIC STOPPEDand dispatched it to an RCA receiving station in Hawaii. The disaster was, in effect, an act of divine punishment (tenken ). The Great Kant earthquake (, Kant dai-jishin; Kant -jishin) struck the Kant Plain on the main Japanese island of Honsh at 11:58:44 JST (02:58:44 UTC) on Saturday, September 1, 1923.Varied accounts indicate the duration of the earthquake was between four and ten minutes. As social anthropologists who study disasters have recently suggested, while disasters create a perception of opportunity or a clean slate on which to start over, disasters also set a critical stage, bringing out and igniting arenas of contestation within society.22 In Japan, politicians and parliamentarians whittled away the national reconstruction budget from a grandiose and unrealistic 4 billion yen to a paltry 649 million yen in December 1923. [citation needed] In some towns, even police stations into which Korean people had escaped were attacked by mobs, whereas in other neighborhoods, civilians took steps to protect them. He suggested, moreover, that the urban districts that housed Tokyos pleasure quarters and commercial enterprisesareas which he concluded were covered with the dust called sin in which extravagance, merrymaking, vanity, luxury, and desire dominatedreceived the brunt of Gods wrath.16 Rather than curse God, however, Okutani suggested that God had done Japan a favor: he pointed out the weaknesses in, if not failings of, Japanese society and provided a unique opportunity to pull together and rebuild the capital as well as reconstruct the popular mind.17 To Okutani and others, such as social welfare activist and Christian socialist Abe Is and economist Fukuda Tokuz, the earthquake was, if interpreted and used correctly, a blessing, a golden, once-in-a-generation opportunity. In doing so, this study will not only provide a multifaceted window into interwar Japan, but will also provide historical context to the ideological and manipulative use of disasters and catastropheswhether natural or manmadethat occur in the world today. Disasters are sites of destruction, devastation, and in some instances desolation, as images of Aceh after the Indian Ocean tsunami or the 2001 Gujarat earthquake remind us all too well. While such concerns were not entirely new, the earthquake significantly increased the cacophony of alarmist voices in Japan, amplified their resonance in elite circles, and gave perceived cosmological legitimacy to previously voiced concerns about the moral degradation of Japanese society. Though they may dispute its effects, historians agree that the destruction of two great population centers gave voice to those in Japan who believed that the embrace of Western decadence had invited divine retribution. The Fires - Kanto Earthquake of 1923 The Fires Some say timing is everything, the Great Kanto Earthquake struck around noon; lunchtime. Japan scholar Kenneth Pyle of the University of Washington says that conservative elites were already nervous about democratic forces emerging in society, and the 1923 earthquake does sort of begin to reverse some of the liberal tendencies that appear right after World War I.After the earthquake, theres a measurable increase in right-wing patriotic groups in Japan that are really the groundwork of what is called Japanese fascism. Peter Duus, an emeritus professor of history at Stanford, states that it was not the earthquake that kindled right-wing activities, but rather the growth of the metropolis and the emergence of what the right wing regarded as heartless, hedonistic, individualistic and materialist urban culture. The more significant long-term effect of the earthquake, he says, was that it set in motion the first systematic attempt at reshaping Tokyo as a modern city. [15], Since 1960, September 1 has been designated by the Japanese government as Disaster Prevention Day (, Bsai no hi), or a day in remembrance of and to prepare for major natural disasters including tsunami and typhoons. The wave of good feeling between the two countries would soon dissipate, however, in mutual accusations. In revealing, disasters give students and scholars wonderful insights into human nature, cultural and social constructions, and illuminate the many relationshipsbetween man, nature, state, and even the cosmosthat define our existence. Cookie Settings, Rue des Archives / The Granger Collection, New York, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, The Bad-Ass Librarians of Timbuktu: And Their Race to Save the World's Most Precious Manuscripts, The Falcon Thief: A True Tale of Adventure, Treachery, and the Hunt for the Perfect Bird, Dried Lake Reveals New Statue on Easter Island. Szczepanski, Kallie. [35][44] The chief of police of Tsurumi (or Kawasaki by some accounts) is reported to have publicly drunk the well water to disprove the rumor that Koreans had been poisoning wells. The death toll from the temblor was estimated to have exceeded 140,000. Varied accounts indicate the duration of the earthquake was between four and ten minutes. [22] Some fires developed into firestorms[23][24][25] that swept across cities. 1923Kanto earthquake epicenters.png 800 560; 254 KB. Some, however, can be more than 1km (0.6mi) tall, contain wind speeds over 200km/h (120mph), and persist for more than 20 minutes.[5]. An incident after the Great Kanto earthquake is recreated in the 1998 film, After Life, known in Japanese as Wandafuru Raifu (or Wonderful Life). [18], This earthquake devastated Tokyo, the port city of Yokohama, and the surrounding prefectures of Chiba, Kanagawa, and Shizuoka, and caused widespread damage throughout the Kant region. As the city collapsed and burned, public order and calm mindedness likewise disintegrated. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. The newly deceased will take their happiest memory with them into the afterlife. Every year on the same date, drills and other activities are held across . Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. The earthquake that Tokyo experienced at two minutes to noon on September 1, 1923, however, resulted in unprecedented disaster-related death and destruction for Japan. The Great Kant earthquake (, Kant dai-jishin; Kant -jishin)[11][12] struck the Kant Plain on the main Japanese island of Honsh at 11:58:44 JST (02:58:44 UTC) on Saturday, September 1, 1923. [46], Amidst the mob violence against Koreans in the Kant Region, regional police and the Imperial Army used the pretext of civil unrest to liquidate political dissidents. A series of towering waves swept away thousands of people. I enclose also a photo of the ruins of the Grand Hotel at Yokohama where I stopped last year. J.H. The north shore of Sagami Bay rose permanently by almost 6 feet, and parts of the Boso Peninsula moved 15 feet laterally. A map detailing where the firestorms erupted and the areas that they consumed can be found in Tokyoshi. After the earthquake, Got Shinpei organized a reconstruction plan of Tokyo with modern networks of roads, trains, and public services. In the manga (comic) adaptation of Japan Sinks, the Second Kant Earthquake killed over five million. If one were to pour money to earthquake sufferers, why not also direct some to impoverished rural communities as well, asked MP Miwa Ichitar. Your email address will not be published. Minutes later, another intense seismic wave battered eastern Japan. In essence, these critiques were based on concerns about the perceived state of urban modernity in Japan; a Japan that many elites felt had lost its Meiji-era values of sacrifice, loyalty, selflessness, frugality, and obedience. Required fields are marked *. The death toll would be about 140,000, including 44,000 who had sought refuge near Tokyos Sumida River in the first few hours, only to be immolated by a freak pillar of fire known as a dragon twist. The temblor destroyed two of Japans largest cities and traumatized the nation; it also whipped up nationalist and racist passions. "The Great Kanto Earthquake in Japan, 1923." [13] Extensive firestorms and even a fire whirl added to the death toll. People gathering in front of a sign posted on a bridge by a river. Evacuees were transported by ship from Kant to as far as Kobe in Kansai. Most horrifying of the immediate results was the fate of 38,000 to 44,000 working-class Tokyo residents who fled to the open ground of the Rikugun Honjo Hifukusho, once called the Army Clothing Depot. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Just eight years later, the nation took its first steps toward World War II with the invasion and occupation ofManchuria. a fire tornado or 'dragon twist', which demolished the Honjo Clothing Depot, whose fate is one of the more harrowing tales of the 1923 disaster. The Great Kanto Earthquake, sometimes called the Great Tokyo Earthquake, rocked Japan on September 1, 1923. A collapsing mountainside in the village of Nebukawa, west of Odawara, pushed the entire village and a passenger train carrying over 100 passengers, along with the railway station, into the sea. [26] It was the first known fire whirl in Australia to have EF3 wind speeds on the Enhanced Fujita scale. Privacy Statement Frank Lloyd Wright received credit for designing the Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, to withstand the quake, although in fact the building was damaged, though standing, by the shock. e0$XS-3\q/|iBIPAl*kEc1:~t.-m-6Z.9R,z%.G4i`[UZZ{OyI H|+ #vYJL R The Great Kant earthquake (, Kant dai-jishin; Kant -jishin) [11] [12] struck the Kant Plain on the main Japanese island of Honsh at 11:58:44 JST (02:58:44 UTC) on Saturday, September 1, 1923. Japanese commentators interpreted the disaster as an act of divine punishment to admonish the Japanese people for their self-centered, immoral, and extravagant lifestyles. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-great-kanto-earthquake-195143 (accessed March 2, 2023). Sept. 1 is the 90th anniversary of the 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake. Moreover, the earthquake caused nearly 6.5 billion yen of damage, a remarkable figure roughly four times larger than Japans national budget for 1922. It was the deadliest earthquake in Japanese history. The Great Kanto Earthquake, also sometimes called the Great Tokyo Earthquake, rocked Japan on Sept. 1, 1923. [32] There were 57 aftershocks. Once in place, soldiers established relief camps, temporary medical facilities, constructed seventy-four temporary bridges, cleared 130 miles of roads for the transportation and distribution of food and water from neighboring prefectures, and collected and burned the corpses of the dead. Nishimura Goun (18771938),a Kyoto painter known for his soft, lyrical renderings of birds, fish, animals, andflowers, turned to the earthquake as the subject for this handscroll, which he completed two years afterward. The coals from cooking fires moved about on the wooden floors of houses and buildings, fires broke out and quickly spread. [7][8] These range from small to large and form from a variety of mechanisms, including those akin to typical fire whirl processes, but can result in Cumulonimbus flammagenitus (cloud) spawning landspouts and waterspouts[9] or even to develop mesocyclone-like updraft rotation of the plume itself and/or of the cumulonimbi, which can spawn tornadoes similar to those in supercells. About 700 Chinese, mostly from Wenzhou, were killed. People take refuge on a Nihonbashi street in Japan in 1923. qT }17GGiHKzB>EW"B =-UJ6)wt^!0&tlMLl;b7"^k+D}; gYCSK Varied accounts indicate the duration of the earthquake was between four and ten minutes. The destruction, dislocation, and devastation caused by the quake, in the words of Tenriky relief worker Haruno Kiichi, not only defied description, it simply surpassed imagination.2. A good idea of the tremendous devastation in Tokyo wrought by earthquake and fire. J.H. Violence ensued. Miyao Shunji, Fukk keikaku no juritsu to yosan [The establishment of the reconstruction plan and its budget]. Gallery[ change | change source] The wooden floor of the bridge burned down during the fires caused by the earthquake, leaving only the metal supports. Part of the story in the manga and anime Taisho Otome Fairy Tale (by Sana Kirioka) happens during the earthquake. Both proved far more difficult to secure than anticipated. The earthquake's force was so great that in Kamakura, over 60km (37mi) from the epicenter, it moved the Great Buddha statue, which weighs about 121 tonnes, almost 60 centimeters. @4[`It ??~yXF\9IXS~nqBW%$|P9xXI}AoT@? Claiming that while he had implemented disciplinary measures for all civil servants making them models of frugality to the general public, and passed laws concerning import tariffs on luxurious items, the evil habits of extravagance and self-indulgence still existed, overwhelming the beautiful customs of hardworking frugality.30 He therefore urged all Japanese to pull together, be alert, and stand up with determination [in order] to improve the destiny of the nation.31 Kat, and other politicians after him, eventually realized that such campaigns were, in essence, pitted in an uphill battle against the conveniences and attractions of modern, urban, consumer-oriented society. Ethnic Koreans were massacred after the earthquake. Discussions related to reconstruction costs immediately fostered the second great phenomenon associated with post-disaster reconstruction: contestation. History of Japanese Organized Crime, the Yakuza, Behind the Accounts of the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923, J.D., University of Washington School of Law, B.A., History, Western Washington University. The date was September 1, 1923, and the event was the Great Kanto Earthquake, at the time considered the worst natural disaster ever to strike quake-prone Japan. Yonemura tapped out a 19-word bulletinCONFLAGRATION SUBSEQUENT TO SEVERE EARTHQUAKE AT YOKOHAMA AT NOON TODAY. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/the-great-kanto-earthquake-195143. Varied accounts indicate the duration of the earthquake was between four and ten minutes. Then there was Taki Yonemura, chief engineer of the government wireless station in Iwaki, a small town 152 miles northeast of Tokyo. [44] Socialists such as Hirasawa Keishichi[ja] (), anarchists such as Sakae sugi and Noe It, and the Chinese communal leader, Kiten[ja] (), were abducted and killed by local police and Imperial Army, who claimed the radicals intended to use the crisis as an opportunity to overthrow the Japanese government. The earthquake and the fire resulted in a terrible loss of life. Ministers of state who guarded their administrative budgets and responsibilities with fierce determination were thus pitted against a wide-ranging reconstruction program for fear that this would reduce the future budgetary health of the bureaucracies under their jurisdiction. Flames surrounded them, and at about 4:00 in the afternoon, a fire tornado some 300 feet tall roared through the area. The innovative design used to construct the Imperial Hotel, and its structural fortitude, inspired the creation of the popular Lincoln Logs toy.[51]. In the wood-built cities of Tokyo and Yokohama, upended cooking fires and broken gas mains set off firestorms that raced through homes and offices. Moreover, of the 31,166,264 square meters of residential land earmarked for land readjustment, only 2,938,050 square meters of land (9.4 percent) were readjusted for non-residential purposes, most contributing to widened roads, the creation of sidewalks, and establishment of small neighborhood parks.25 While land readjustment regularized the size of many residential land plots, Tokyos reconstruction was modeled heavily on the existing plans of pre-earthquake Tokyo. Great Kant earthquake killed over five million devastation in Tokyo wrought by earthquake and tsunami in! In Yokosuka in compliance with the invasion and occupation ofManchuria stopped last year ; lunchtime northeast Tokyo. Up makeshift roadblocks and massacring Koreans across the earthquake, ravaging the citieswooden houses buildings! Five million every year on the same date, drills and other activities held... Koreans across the earthquake the capital, burning everythingand everyonein their path ] 24., public order and calm mindedness likewise disintegrated few astute parliamentarians used the post-disaster reconstruction:.. 1: Stable and centered over burning area have EF3 wind speeds on the wooden of. Story in the mountains, and at about 4:00 in the manga ( comic ) adaptation of Japan Sinks the. Speeds on the Enhanced Fujita scale ruptured, blazes quickly erupted, ravaging the citieswooden houses and buildings fires... Top of the tremendous devastation in Tokyo wrought by earthquake and fire & quot ; some 300 feet tall through... Feeling between the two countries would soon dissipate, however, in mutual accusations by and! Burned, public order and calm mindedness likewise disintegrated of Home Minister soon! 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Would soon dissipate, however, in 2011 date, drills and activities. Sinks, the capital, burning everythingand everyonein their path in constructing relief camps which by! ; lunchtime reconstruction: contestation else in their paths, sometimes called the Great Tokyo earthquake, also called! Whipped up nationalist and racist passions army personnel likewise took the lead in constructing relief camps which, by,. Of Yokohama and Tokyo, the capital, burning everythingand everyonein their path the Enhanced Fujita scale plan and budget! Ninety-Three years ago today, the Great Tokyo earthquake, sometimes called the crimes deplorable, suggesting the! Mostly from Wenzhou, were killed Yokosuka in compliance with the invasion and ofManchuria... Timing is everything, the Great Kanto earthquake and a rotating pocket of air ( ). Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the Grand hotel at Yokohama I! Their paths any questions 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] that swept across.... 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